What are they supposed to show, according to Dennett? Where S satisfies PAP(s), S is morally responsible for E; where this is not the case then S should still be ascribed moral responsibility if the twin world condition is satisfied. Neither architect lived to see their vision come true, but both were right about some aspects of their future, todays present. Frankfurt, H. (1969). 13. the secretaries (leaders) of the departments of the executive branch. On the other hand, neither did Wright succeed in his wishes to rid our cities of skyscrapers and landlords (and in fact proposed his own mile-high skyscraper two decades later.) The consequences of nuclear warfare, and the type of measures which would have to be taken to protect a country from total destruction by nuclear bombing, must be as abhorrent to other nations as to the United States. In this way, other nations may assume a share of responsibility for such a fateful decision. I follow this with a discussion on how PAP(s) is able to withstand the challenge set by Frankfurt-style scenarios, before moving on to consider a further sufficient condition for moral responsibility. the universe, morality, well-ordered laws of nature, etc.). Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 80(3), 551565. Much more favorable conditions for the eventual achievement of such an agreement could be created if nuclear bombs were first revealed to the world by a demonstration in an appropriately selected uninhabited area. I argue that PAP does not need to be endorsed as a necessary condition for moral responsibility and, in fact, presenting PAP as a sufficient condition maintains its usefulness as a maxim for moral accountability whilst avoiding . 20) Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their position? They would point out that the catastrophic consequences of a nuclear war would affect not only the warring nations but also the entire world. This is a difficult problem, but we think it soluble. Where S is coerced into doing E, for example, we would not want to say that S is morally responsible, especially where the coercion is such that it eliminates all morally acceptable alternatives. 119137). In this way, the money spent on wartime development of nucleartechnology may benefit the peacetime development of the national economy."James Franck, German-born scientist developing nuclear weapons technology for the United States, report to the United Statesgovernment, 194518) Which of the following developments during the Second World War Frankfurth cases, alternate possibilities, and prior signs. Question 38 options: Opponents contend, among other arguments, that the bombings were unnecessary to win the war or that they constituted a war crime or genocide. Example 1. (I focused on the second version). In conclusion, I aim to have shown that by positioning the principle of alternate possibilities as a sufficient condition for the ascription of moral responsibility, rather than as necessary, PAP(s) amounts to as useful a maxim as PAP for determining moral accountability. Which of the following arguments would a supporter of using nuclear weapons against Japan have. Also, we have arguably not yet made the progress toward seamless technological integration he had hoped for. The achievement of such an agreement will thus essentially depend on the integrity of intentions and readiness to sacrifice the necessary fraction of one's own sovereignty, by all the parties to the agreement. An example of this would be a form of Sophies choice whereby S is ordered at gun point to kill one of his two children. the informal advisers who work with the president to guide and shape their agenda, such a The scientists on this project do not presume to speak authoritatively on problems of national and international policy. One might even say that the presence of a counterfactual intervener means that the environment does not enable alternate possibilities; so (b) is not satisfied. What is the point of the cult-man objection? What is collective representation? The scientific facts on which construction is based are well known to scientists of other countries. Third parties shift voters' attention away from major-party candidates. Production of nuclear explosives begins with the processing of large quantities of uranium in large isotope separation plants or huge production piles. You can specify conditions of storing and accessing cookies in your browser, 13. British scientists know as much as we do about the basic wartime progress of nucleonics -- if not of the specific processes used in our engineering developments -- and the role which French nuclear physicists have played in the pre-war development of this field, plus their occasional contact with our Projects, will enable them to catch up rapidly, at least as far as basic scientific discoveries are concerned. Alternative possibilities and causal histories. In 1906, Wendell T. Bush became associated with the Journal as co-editor. All external conditions required to enable alternate possibilities are satisfied. However, it need not prevent the production of radioactive elements on a scale sufficient to revolutionize the industrial, scientific and technical use of these materials, and would thus not eliminate the main benefits which nucleonics promises to bring to mankind. The Founders agreed that all personsnot just citizensmust be included in the representation base for members of Congress. Complete the sentence by inferring information about the italicized word from its context. here our team solve your academic problems daily. answer choices. What is Frankfurt's view on this? The Philosophical Review, 104(2), 247261. (If FW requires whole-heartedness, what does this imply about decisions based on ambivalence? The essays were aimed at convincing opponents of the US Constitution to ratify it so that it . Question 16 options: What this means is that alternate possibilities are necessary in some form for the ascription of moral responsibility but not necessarily in the form by which one could have acted otherwise on a given occasion, as the original formulation of PAP demands. Reasons reactivity and incompatibilist intuitions. The Japanese government instilled fierce, killing nationalism in the Japanese people, making Japan unlikely to surrender unconditionally without experiencing the effects of nuclear weapons. As such, S fails to satisfy both PAP(s) and the twin world condition, and should not therefore be held to account, morally. The amounts of ore taken out of the ground at different locations could be controlled by resident agents of the international Control Board, and each nation could be allotted only an amount which would make large-scale separation of fissionable isotopes impossible. Describes a situation in which someone is morally responsible but is unable to do otherwise. Neither Le Corbusier nor Frank Lloyd Wright could truly be said to have won the argument played out in the 1930s newspaper, as both got some ideas right and many wrong. Zagzebski, L. (2000). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-016-9690-2, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-016-9690-2. Answer: Explanation: Background In 1938, a small group of German scientists accidentally discovered nuclear fission. (2010). Princeton University student: Conservatives are being shut down before they can even voice an opinion. What is a second-order wanton? His dreams of a certain amount of land for each person have been realized to a point in American suburbs, but many of these bedroom communities lack the amenities on which Wright would have insisted. esponsibility to protect their citizens from atrocious crimesand in 2006 the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1674, which commits the Council to protect civilians during armed conflicts. If no efficient international agreement is achieved, the race for nuclear armaments will be on in earnest not later than the morning after our first demonstration of the existence of nuclear weapons. Dennett's Luther Argument ("character examples"). The answer is that even though the largest now known deposits of uranium ores are under the control of powers which belong to the "western" group (Canada, Belgium and British India), the old deposits in Czechoslovakia are outside this sphere. It is clear shallow arguments appealing to culture and sovereignty, as well as Western clumsiness and hypocrisy, have shielded human rights abuses from scrutiny. In the twin world condition, S is ascribed moral responsibility because alternate possibilities, should they have been available, would not have changed Ss decision making. Philosophical Explorations, 12(2), 109118. Google Scholar. Part of Springer Nature. In his opening sentence, Wright implores us not to childishly try to tear the city down to get the green country in and set the city up in it again on its old site feudal towers a little further apart, in an obvious first punch. "For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent.". the four top leaders in Congress and the chief justice of the Supreme Court. One of these bombs could then destroy something like 3 square miles of an urban area. A We do not need, therefore, to draw on any notion of a pre-decision flicker of freedom. From this point of view, a demonstration of the new weapon might best be made, before the eyes of representatives of all the United Nations, on the desert or a barren island. What is it supposed to show, and why? Here, Frankfurt presents the act of being able to do otherwise as a necessary condition for the ascription of moral responsibility. Art for Art's Sake is basically a call for release from the tyranny of meaning and purpose. Principle of Alternative Possibilities (PAP). We have to be careful, of course, about how such a description is formally presented. Another argument which could be quoted in favor of using atomic bombs as soon as they are available is that so much taxpayers' money has been invested in these Projects that the Congress and the American public will demand a return for their money. Instead, the role played by alternative possibilities in the twin world condition is more subjunctive, insofar as what is described is a possibility rather than an actuality. (1959) from Harvard University, and in 1995 was awarded an LL.d. Both architects had utopian, all-encompassing plans for their ideal American city, combining social as well as architectural ideas. Philosophical Studies, 153, 261272. Explain the importance of each term, person, or place: proletariat; soviet; Cheka; commissar. It hardly needs stressing that we as scientists believe that any systems of control envisaged should leave as much freedom for the peacetime development of nucleonics as is consistent with the safety of the world. Although important tactical results undoubtedly can be achieved by a sudden introduction of nuclear weapons, we nevertheless think that the question of the use of the very first available atomic bombs in the Japanese war should be weighed very carefully, not only by military authorities, but by the highest political leadership of this country. In 2005, world leaders formally adopted the Responsibility to Protect [R2P]the duty to intervene in when national governments fail to fulfill their r By making PAP sufficient rather than necessary for moral responsibility, it is still the case that anyone who satisfies (a) and (b) is held to account, morally. (1954) and S.J.d. Connect to Locke's argument about the prisoner. a) PAP(s) is, however, not vulnerable to Frankfurts counter-example, as I shall now demonstrate. Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier are both architects who were known for their grand and innovative ideasas well as for their high esteem for their own opinions. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in No two are alike, not even a tiny bit. Just because a potential enemy will be afraid of being "outnumbered and outgunned," the temptation for him may be overwhelming to attempt a sudden unprovoked blow -- particularly if he should suspect us of harboring aggressive intentions against his security or his sphere of influence. This protection can come only from the political organization of the world. Modified Frankfurt-type counterexamples and flickers of freedom. Why Frankfurt-examples dont need to succeed to succeed. ), Addiction vs. weakness of the will. It is 980 too many. With the convenience of modern transportation and future innovations to come, Wright asks why proximity to the city is important. Because of this, the original formulation of PAP is unnecessary. We can allow that clauses (a) and (b) are violated because such violation does not negate the possibility that Jones is nevertheless morally responsible for his action: for some other condition (as yet to be identified) could exist that is sufficient to justify the claim that Jones is morally responsible, even though he could not have done other than he did. So he waits until Jones is about to make up his mind what to do, and does nothing unless it is clear to him (Black is an excellent judge of such things) that Jones is going to decide to do something other than what he wants him to do. Including a soundproof, well-lit living room and a double-faade of glass to control the effects of outside temperature, Le Corbusiers habitable towers were to include at least twelve dwelling floors each and accommodate 1,000 people per hectare (2.47 acres). Many different political ideologies were represented in the Republic, Which statement best explains why many Germans became discontented with the Weimar Republic in the early 1930s-, Germany experienced widespread unemployment and inflated prices. Beyond the towers themselves, his vision includes broader recommendations for city life, most notably the separation of pedestrians and cars. June 14, 2022 . Our possibilities of retaliation -- even if retaliation should be considered adequate compensation for the loss of millions of lives and destruction of our largest cities -- will be greatly handicapped because we must rely on aerial transportation of the bombs, and also because we may have to deal with an enemy whose industry and population are dispersed over a large territory. "He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people.". Now the doctrine that coercion and moral responsi- So, on August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay, an American B-29 bomber, dropped the world's first atomic bomb over Hiroshima. But the ontological argument starts, not with what we observe, but with the very idea of God and says that this idea entails that . After this, it might take other nations three or four years to overcome our present head start, and eight or ten years to draw even with us if we continue to do intensive work in this field. In the past, science has often been able to provide also new methods of protection against new weapons of aggression it made possible, but it cannot promise such efficient protection against the destructive use of nuclear power. In this case, there are alternate possibilities, of course, thereby making it possible for S to do other than he did; but there are no alternate possibilities that do not involve a morally repugnant outcome; meaning that S cannot engage in any action that does not result in an immoral act occurring. Current technology, in fact, seems to be moving away from the standardization Le Corbusier hoped for and closer to the personalization and customization championed by Wright in his article. In 1923, theJournalwas incorporated in the State of New York under its present name. Instead it has harnessed us to itself and plunged us into slavery, he wrote. Underline each predicate nominative in the following sentences. The events in this chart that took place in 1933 led to which of the following in Germany. answer choices. The Federalist was originally planned to be a series of essays for publication in New York City newspapers, but ultimately expanded into a collection of 85 essays, which were published as two volumes in March and May 1788. The United States use of nuclear weapons against Japan might provoke the Soviet Union into becoming Japan's ally. We cannot simply say that S is morally responsible because he decided to do E and then did E (hereafter, doing E includes deciding to do E). Germany, he argued, bore the main share of responsibility for the outbreak of the war. It must be pointed out that in this field we are in a less favorable position than nations which are now more diffusely populated and either whose industries are more scattered, or whose governments have unlimited power over the movement of population and the location of industrial plants. Putting all of this together, we can now see how each sufficient condition contains a different form of, and therefore a different role for, alternate possibilities. We felt, however, that the dilemma had to be stated, to show what kind of alternative method of protection will have to be considered if no successful international agreement is reached. In stating that S could have done otherwise, I am endorsing the view (much as I take Frankfurt to have done when formulating PAP) that: It is possible for S to do otherwise insofar as S is both physically and mentally capable of doing otherwise (including being aware of alternate possibilities that he/she (hereafter he) is able to select/perform). Explain why the objections doesn't seem to work. Can you cite any examples where R2P has been or should be implemented? (c) At the end of the story, how does the stranger's visit continue to affect the family? An agent is morally responsible for performing a given act A only if he or she could have done otherwise. You'll now receive updates based on what you follow! s the chief of staff. What is the "flickers of freedom objection?" The principle of alternate possibilities and ought implies can.. b) Where this is not the cases, as expressed within (3) then we must conclude that intervention has occurred in W1, thereby explaining the incongruence across worlds. I argue that PAP does not need to be endorsed as a necessary condition for moral responsibility and, in fact, presenting PAP as a sufficient condition maintains its usefulness as a maxim for moral accountability whilst avoiding Frankfurt-style counter-examples. To illustrate: In twin world scenarios, all must be equal apart from the one thing that distinguishes each world from the other which, in this case, is the presence or absence of alternate possibilities. Now, while PAP(s) is not necessary for the attribution of moral responsibility, it could be argued that the necessity of alternate possibilities nevertheless remains, as evidenced by the twin world condition. 1969 Journal of Philosophy, Inc. Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument for an international agreement would likely argue that nuclear weapons pose a global threat that cannot be addressed by individual states alone. Schnall, I. M. (2001). What if cult-man is brainwashed? Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 80(2), 440446. Supporters of the bombings generally believe that they prevented an invasion of the Japanese mainland, saving more lives than they took by doing so. Despite such objections, educators have continued to find Pedagogy of the Oppressed relevant and to adapt its arguments to their contemporary context. Whatever E happens to be, it is congruent across the different worlds within each respective scenario: E is congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 1 and congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 2. Why, according to Kane, does this example fail to show what Dennett thinks it shows? Likewise: Here, S should not be morally praised for E in W1 as we must conclude that some form of intervention has occurred thereby making Ss action in W1 incongruent with what he would have done in W2. Leon, F., & Tognazzini, N. A. The Founders resolved the tension . His music was heavily influenced by Liszt and Wagner, as in his Symphony in D minor, one of his most famous . the leaders of organizations within the Executive Office of the President. In 1962 Franck was the only artist invited to draw all four sessions of . A New international organizations could have only a limited effect in restraining the actions of the great powers. Debate has centred on whether the sign, which is not an indication of a decision, but an indication of what Jones is about to decide, nevertheless amounts to evidence that, on the occasion when the sign was present, an alternate possibility was available to Jones. Wrights ideas, instead, focus on decentralization, writing that we have plenty of space and that skyscrapers are unnecessary except to the landlords who charge rent. The only reason to treat nuclear power differently from all other developments in the field of physics is the possibility of its use as a means of political pressure in peace and sudden destruction in war. The legitimacy of Frankfurts challenge to PAP as necessary for the ascription of moral responsibility has been debated extensively over the years. Personalize your stream and start following your favorite authors, offices and users. Frankfurt/Watson need a principled distinction here. As long as nuclear bombs remain scarce (i.e. Russia, and even allied countries which bear less mistrust of our ways and intentions, as well as neutral countries may be deeply shocked by this step. Willing addict is responsible for action but his will is not free. By Charles Yu. 231248). Inherent within each of the aforementioned sufficient conditions is a role for alternate possibilities. Since the area of the United States is about three million square miles, it should be possible to scatter its industrial and human resources in such a way as to leave no 500 square miles important enough to serve as a target for nuclear attack. Third parties often bring attention to topics that are unpopular or unknown. On mele and Robbs indeterministic Frankfurt-style case. Voltaire supposedly kept up his prodigious output by spending up to 18 hours a day writing or dictating to secretaries, often while still in bed. SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT In our constitutional democracy, all persons who reside within the United Statesincluding The answer to the first suggestion is that although we undoubtedly are at present ahead of the rest of the world in this field, the fundamental facts of nuclear power are a subject of common knowledge. Third parties help bridge the gap between state and federal legislators. Irrespective of which world one is referring to, then, S should be morally condemned for performing E in (1) but morally praised for the action carried out in (2). On the other hand, it may be argued that without an early demonstration it may prove difficult to obtain adequate support for further intensive development of nucleonics in this country and that thus the time gained by the postponement of an open armaments race will not be properly used. Blumenfeld, D. (1971). At present, it may be that atomic bombs can be detonated with an effect equal to that of 20,000 tons of TNT. If this race is inevitable, we have every reason to delay its beginning as long as possible in order to increase our head start still further. Russia is known to be mining radium on its own territory; and even if we do not know the size of the deposits discovered so far in the USSR, the probability that no large reserves of uranium will be found in a country which covers one-fifth of the land area of the earth (and whose sphere of influence takes in additional territory) is too small to serve as a basis for security. The disagreement began on January 3, 1932, when Le Corbusier published an article in The Times which ran under the title A Noted Architect Dissects Our Cities Le Corbusier Indicts Them as Cataclysms and Describes His Ideal Metropolis. Discussing cities like Paris, New York, and Chicago, Le Corbusier explains his vision for what we know today as Ville Radieuse, which he calls in the article the Green City. In fact, if the race for nuclear armaments is allowed to develop, the only apparent way in which our country can be protected from the paralyzing effects of a sudden attack is by dispersal of those industries which are essential for our war effort and dispersal of the populations of our major metropolitan cities. The aims of this paper is to argue that, as a maxim for moral responsibility, endorsing PAP as a sufficient condition is as effective as presenting it as a necessary condition. For terms and use, please refer to our Terms and Conditions A nation able to assign 10 tons of atomic explosives for a sneak attack on this country, can then hope to achieve the destruction of all industry and most of the population in an area from 500 square miles upwards. Recall: PAP(s): A person is morally responsible for what they have done if they could have done otherwise. FF: brainwasher AND cultman are both FULLY responsible, Why is whole-heartedness problematic for our intuitions about FW. This new discovery had an immense amount of potential as a weapon of war. It could be suggested that the danger of destruction by nuclear weapons can be avoided -- at least as far as this country is concerned -- either by keeping our discoveries secret for an indefinite time, or else by developing our nuclear armaments at such a pace that no other nations would think of attacking us from fear of overwhelming retaliation. 23 Ibid, at 119. PubMedGoogle Scholar. A person that can only act on strongest desire at the time. His SOD is not effective/ makes little difference and is a slave to his passions. Every attempt to impede the international control agencies would have to be considered equivalent to denunciation of the agreement. When discussing alternate possibilities, then, the notion of alternate possibilities should be understood to mean that there is at least one alternate possibility that is considered morally praiseworthy, or at the very least not immoral. Many upcoming theories claim that in addition to knowing the current state of the agent/choice, we also need to know the way that her current state came about. We are fully aware of the staggering difficulties involved in such a radical change in the social and economic structure of our nation. Complete the sentence in a way that shows you understand the meaning of the italicized vocabulary word. Question:Contemporaries who agreed with francks argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their position? In J. E. Tomberlin (Ed. Not to mention, the natural landscape certainly was not given priority in planning most suburban settlements. Moreover, PAP as a sufficient condition hereafter PAP(s) has the advantage of being able to withstand Frankfurt-style counter-examples without, I contend, losing its efficacy as a maxim for moral responsibility. Philosophical Explorations, 8(2), 131143. The metaphysics of free will. It has been suggested that a compulsory denaturation of pure fissionable isotopes may be agreed uponby diluting them, after production, with suitable isotopes to make them useless for military purposes, while retaining their usefulness for power engines. [18] B Which of these characteristics of world war I is illustrated by this central message? Voting booth, only interferes if the person would do something else. He received his LL.M. By way of a response, consider the following: Where Ss action E in world W1 (a world without alternate possibilities, owing to the possibility of intervention) and Ss action E in twin world W2 (which differs from W1 only insofar as it is a world with alternate possibilities) are congruent then S in either world is morally responsible for E. To illustrate how one might apply the twin world condition, consider scenarios (1) and (2): W1 (No alternate possibilities): S does E (an immoral act), W2 (alternate possibilities are available): S does E (an immoral act), W1 (No alternate possibilities): S does E (a moral act), W2 (alternate possibilities are available): S does E (a moral act).